Transitions at various times in life pose problems for children as they develop toward adulthood. For example, the transition to middle school can pose educational and psychological problems for early adolescents (Eccles, 1991; Blyth et al, 1983). Adolescence is the time when we can expect students to begin to become more independent learners - to take greater charge of their own learning activities. Beginning in the upper elementary and middle school grades, students are able to understand the advantages of the thinking and study skills described in Chapter 7 and to apply these skills (Brown, Campione, & Day, 1981; Patterson, O'Brien, Kister, Bruce, & Kotsonis, 1981; Pressley & Ghatala, 1990). The activities of middle schools and high schools often have the potential for promoting independent learning and effective study skills. For example, adolescents often receive learning material to read or study outside of class and to take frequent tests for which they must prepare on their own. A major part of their grades is likely to depend on these homework assignments and tests (Eccles, Midgely, & Adler, 1984; Gullickson, 1985; Sanford, 1987).
However, although middle and high schools have the potential to stimulate independent learning, this potential is often unfulfilled. For example, research suggests that adolescents often devote little time to out-of-class work, and the work they actually do outside of class is often low level, duplicative, and generally uninspired (Christopoulos, Rohwer, & Thomas, 1987). The paradox is that although adolescents have become capable of independent learning and the schools are generally ready to offer opportunities for greater independence, the students often receive assignments that actually reduce independent learning (Thomas, 1993). There is evidence that adolescents who do employ effective thinking and study skills - and whose teachers make deliberate attempts to foster these skills - are likely to do better in most classes (Peper & Mayer, 1986; Bretzing, Kulhavy, & Caterino, 1987; Peterson, 1988; Ramsden, Martin, & Bowden, 1989; Roth, 1990; Nolen & Haladyna, 1990). In addition to incorporating into their courses strategies that foster independent learning, it is possible to offer scaffolded instruction in how to study independently (Pressley, Snyder, & Cariglia-Bull, 1986) and to teach students to attribute success to effective use of these skills (Borkowski & Krause, 1985; Zimmerman, 1989). These skills are useful not only in middle and high school, but also in postsecondary education (Losak, Schwartz, & Morris, 1982; Houston, 1987; Uno, 1988).
Table 4.8 summarizes some of the major ways in which adolescents can use independent learning skills, the breakdowns that are likely to occur, and ways to overcome these breakdowns. Note that the breakdowns are not "stupid mistakes"; there is often a good reason for these breakdowns. In most cases, they are techniques that would be appropriate for other purposes or in other developmental contexts. For example, giving students communication aids (like outlines and diagrams) will reduce independent learning only to the extent that they are introduced in such a way as to promote passive learning. If students use these tools actively, they can promote active learning (Patterson, Dansereau, & Newbern, 1992). Note also that not all adolescents experience the breakdowns shown in Table 4.8: many adolescents are successful as independent learners precisely because their schools already apply the solutions shown in Table 4.8. Educators working with adolescents should seriously consider the possibility that their students may need large scale instruction in independent learning and study skills. Middle school students seem to benefit most when such strategy instruction occurs in supportive group settings and when they receive abundant feedback for their attempts (Brown et al, 1983; Brown & Palinscar, 1989; Brown & Reeve, 1987).
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Table 4.8. Characteristics of Adolescents That Could Support Adolescent Growth and Curricular Obstacles to This Growth. (Based on Thomas, 1993). |
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Principle |
Obstacle |
Solution |
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1. Adolescents are able to
understand the advantages of strategic thinking and to make
spontaneous use of meta- |
Many students do not engage in these behaviors spontaneously. They tend to engage in duplicative behaviors instead, such as simple rereading, constant repetition, and recopying notes. Many students tend to use the same study strategies in all situations, rather than selecting the best way to deal with specific problems. |
Prompt independent thinking and eventually fade the prompts.
Model independent thinking by thinking aloud. Assign cooperative groups and monitor these groups to promote independent thinking of all members. Reinforce thinking strategies rather than purely right answers.
Shape independent thinking - reinforce successive approximations. Teach conditional thinking - when to use the skills as well as how. Consider both focusing on thinking skills in natural contexts and teaching them directly. Avoid thinking for the students.
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2. Middle and high school projects and assignments often include activities that could encourage independent study and self-regulated learning. |
Although they often assign projects that can best be completed through independent thinking, teachers often make no deliberate attempt to teach independent thinking skills. Therefore, the students resort to rote learning. Teachers often provide too much support for instruction. By doing so, they make it unnecessary for students to think independently Feedback often does not give sufficient information to guide students in changing their study habits. Teachers may give students heavy workloads in order to stimulate them to study the subject matter in depth. The result is that students have little time to actually study any topic in depth. |
Give assignments with clearly specified objectives and clear course demands that are related to non-trivial goals. When describing course demands and when evaluating student performance, focus on mastery of important subject matter rather than social comparisons. Give challenging assignments that provide practice at achieving instructional goals. These activities should require independent thinking. (Avoid giving practice exercises that are identical or exactly parallel to tests. These stimulate rote memorization.) Provide guidance and corrective feedback during practice. Give feedback a specific focus. Praise productive effort rather than ability or normative comparisons. Give a smaller amount of work that requires independent thinking rather than a large amount that can be done by rote. |
In summary, adolescents can learn independent thinking skills most effectively when teachers set moderately challenging course demands; when teachers avoid reducing task demands by thinking for the students - that is, by giving them information that makes it unnecessary for the students themselves to engage in deep thought; when the students have access to materials that support achievement of course goals by stimulating independent thought; and when students are able to develop and practice thinking skills in apprentice-like settings. One of the major reasons for What Students Can Do guidelines at the end of the chapters in this book is to give educators suggestions that they can convey to students to help them become more active and independent learners. Students become much more capable of following these guidelines during adolescence than when they were younger.
What Teachers, Parents, and Students Can Do
(To be Added.)
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