Summary

This chapter has summarized several major instructional principles and has shown how the computer can help put these principles into practice to help students learn. There are many other principles that have not been discussed in this chapter, and the computer can make important contributions to some of these as well. The principles in this chapter were chosen because they have a firm basis in research and because there are obvious ways in which they relate to the computer.

Table 3.3 summarizes the principles and guidelines discussed in this chapter. An understanding of these principles and guidelines will help you use the computer in a way that enhances the effective use of learning time and increases student performance.

Principle or Concept	Summary	Guidelines	Information Links	Application Links
Mastery Learning	Given enough time, nearly all learners can master objectives.	Use programs that provide extra help and practice towards reaching objectives. Use programs to stimulate and enrich students who reach objectives early. Use record-keeping programs to keep track of student performance.
Direct Instruction and Active Teaching	If teachers describe objectives and demonstrate exact steps, students can master specific skills more efficiently.	Use programs that specify exact steps and teach them clearly and specifically. Show the relationship of computer programs to steps in the direct teaching process.	Response to "The High/Scope Preschool Curriculum Comparison Study Through Age 23" by Siegfried Engelmann, http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adiep/zigrebut.htm
Overlearning	To become automatic, skills must be practiced and reinforced well beyond the point of initial mastery.	Use computer programs to provide self-paced, individualized practice. Use computer programs that provide gamelike practice for skills that require much repeated practice. Use computer programs that provide varied approaches to practicing the same activity.
Memory Skills	Being able to recall factual information is a useful skill that enhances all levels of learning.	Use computer programs to provide repeated practice and facilitate memorization. Use programs designed to develop memory skills.
Peer Tutoring	Both tutor and tutee can benefit from properly structured peer tutoring.	Have students work in groups at computers. Use programs that are structured to help tutors provide instruction, prompts, and feedback. Teach students to give feedback, prompts, and instruction at computers.
Cooperative Learning	Helping one another is often more productive than competing for scarce rewards.	1. Have students work in groups at computers. 2. Use programs that promote cooperation. 3. Provide guidelines for cooperative roles at computers.
Monitoring Student Progress	Close monitoring of student progress enables students, teachers, and parents to identify strengths and weaknesses of learners and to support learning.	1. Use programs that have management systems to monitor student progress. 2. Use record-keeping programs. 3. Use computer to communicate feedback.
Student Misconceptions	Identifying misconceptions helps develop an understanding of topics.	1. Use programs to diagnose misconceptions. 2. Use programs to teach correct understanding of misunderstood concepts.
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills	Knowledge is usually hierarchical, and low level skills must be learned before higher level skills can be mastered.	1. Use programs to assess prerequisite knowledge and skills. 2. Use programs to teach missing prerequisite skills.
Immediate Feedback	Feedback usually works best if it comes quickly after a response.	1. Use programs that provide immediate feedback. 2. Use programs that provide clear corrective feedback.
Parental Involvement	Parents should be informed about and assist in helping students learn.	1. Use computer to communicate with parents about educational activities and progress. 2. Exploit home computers.
Learning Styles	Learners vary in preference for modes and styles of learning.	1. Use programs that appeal to students' preferred learning styles. 2. Use programs that supplement your weak teaching styles. 3. Use programs that employ a variety of learning styles.
Classroom Management	Effective classroom management provides more time for instruction.	1. Use the computer as a tool to improve classroom management. 2. Use instructional programs that have a management component.
Teacher Questions	If teachers ask higher order questions and wait for students to answer, higher level learning is likely to occur.	1. Select programs that ask higher level questions. 2. Use programs that individualize pace of instruction, since wait time is likely to be better than with traditional instruction.
Study and Thinking Skills	Effective study skills can be taught, and these almost always enhance learning.	1. Teach students to use the computer as a tool to manage and assist learning. 2. Use programs that teach thinking skills. 3. Teach generalization of thinking and study skills across subject areas. 4. Use scaffolded instruction at the computer.
Homework	When homework is well planned by teachers, completed by students, and related to class, learning improves.	1. Assign homework for home computers. 2. Have students do preparatory work off the computer as homework.
Transfer of Learning	Students will generalize what is learned in one situation to other settings if specific steps are taken to assure transfer of learning	1. Have students focus their attention on what they did that was successful. 2. Ask reflective questions at the end of the lesson. 3. Use the "Remember when...? Now let's..." rule.