The following are the objectives of this chapter:

1. Define and give examples of motivation.
   
   
2. List, describe, and give examples of the major factors that contribute to intrinsic motivation.
   
   (Questions 1 through 3)
   (Questions 5 through 7)
   (Intrinsic Motivation Exercise)
   (Matching Exercise Set 1)
   
3. Describe the relationship of reinforcement and punishment to motivation.
   
   
4. Describe the major cognitive aspects of motivation.
   
   
5. Describe the major affective components of motivation.
   
   
6. Describe how human needs are related to motivation.
   
   
7. Describe how physiological factors influence motivation.
   
   
8. Describe how self-efficacy influences motivation and achievement.
   
   
9. Describe the major components of attribution theory as it relates to motivation.
   
   
   (Questions 8 through 10)
   (Attribution Theory Exercise)
   (Matching Exercise Set 2)
   
10. Describe classroom atmosphere and its relationship to motivation.
    
    
11. Describe the relationship between teacher expectancy and motivation.

Possible Problems and Solutions

1. Students are sometimes overwhelmed by the apparently huge amount of information in Table 5.1 in the textbook and the accompanying discussion. This information is important, and the best way to deal with it may be to approach it in segments. Workbook Figures 5.1 through 5.6 introduce textbook Table 5.1 in small steps and in logical order.

Workbook Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the major factors that comprise intrinsic motivation. These two diagrams go together. The only reason they have been put on two pages is that putting them on a single diagram becomes excessively cluttered.

Figure 5.1 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.1 shows the individual factors that stimulate intrinsic motivation (that is, factors within the human mind or personality that stimulate learners to engage in activities for the interest and enjoyment that accompanies these activities). Figure 5.1 is expanded in Figures 5.3 through 5.6 below.

Figure 5.2 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.2 shows the interpersonal factors that stimulate intrinsic motivation (that is, factors that operate in group settings to stimulate learners to engage in activities for the interest and enjoyment that accompanies these activities).

It was impossible to describe the individual factors in detail in Figure 5.1; and so those figures are further described in Figures 5.3 through 5.6.

Figure 5.3 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.3 describes challenge. {This diagram is an expansion of Figure 5.1.} It shows that learners are likely to be motivated by tasks at a continuously optimal level of difficulty when (1) the learners set and internalize clear goals, (2) the probability of success is neither extremely easy nor extremely difficult, (3) the learners receive clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback about their status with regard to their goals, and (4) the learners derive feelings of self-worth and competence from completing the tasks.

Figure 5.4 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.4 describes curiosity. {This diagram is an expansion of Figure 5.1.} It shows that learners can be motivated by either variations in the sensory environment or intriguing cognitive aspects of information that is presented to them.

Figure 5.5 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.5 describes control. {This diagram is an expansion of Figure 5.1.} It shows that learners can attain a feeling of self-determination and control by (1) seeing obvious connections between what they do and important outcomes they can accomplish, (2) perceiving themselves as making free choices to engage in activities rather than being coerced by someone else, and (3) feeling that the outcomes they accomplish are really important.

Figure 5.6 (above)

Workbook Figure 5.6 describes fantasy. {This diagram is an expansion of Figure 5.1.} It shows that learners can participate in interesting activities in their imagination by (1) imagining events that appeal to their emotional needs and by (2) imagining events that demonstrate an understanding or ability to apply information being learned. It also shows that (3) the imagined events can be more motivating to the extent that they are naturally related to the information being learned.

2. Students are sometimes confused by important aspects of attribution theory. This information is important. The best way to approach it may be to look specifically at the definition of key attributions in terms of whether each is internal or external, stable or unstable, and controllable or uncontrollable.

Effort is internal, unstable, and controllable. This means that effort comes from inside a person, that it can easily be different on one occasion than on another, and that the person performing the activity has control over how much effort will be expended.

If a test is hard but the student thinks it will probably be easier next time if she approaches it differently, this is an effort attribution.

• The reason for success is internal (There's something inside her - the way she approached the task - that caused her performance to be less than satisfactory.)
  
  
• The likelihood of success is unstable. (The outcome will not necessarily be the same in the future. It will perhaps be different if she approaches the test differently.)
  
  
• She does have control over the outcome. (She can change the way she approaches her preparation for the test.)

Ability is internal, stable, and uncontrollable. This means that ability exists inside a person, that it is not likely to be different on one occasion than on another, and that the person performing the activity has little control over how much ability he or she will possess.

If a test is hard and the student thinks it will probably still be hard the next time, even if he approaches it differently, because he simply cannot master something that difficult, this is an ability attribution.

• The reason for success is internal (The inability to master the material arises inside him. Note that if the focus were on task difficulty, other people would experience difficulty too. It must be something inside himself that is making his performance unsatisfactory.)
  
  
• The likelihood of success is stable. (He expects a similar outcome, because he lacks the capability to do better.
  
  
• He has no control over the outcome. (He cannot increase his capability by wishing or working harder. He lacks the ability to do better without unreasonable effort.)

Note that if this person changed the last two explanations and said, "Maybe I could do better if I worked harder," this attribution would become internal, unstable, and controllable, which would make it an effort attribution.

Task Difficulty is external, stable, and uncontrollable. This means that the reason a task is difficult (or easy) lies in the task itself, not in the person approaching the task, that the probability of success is not likely to be different on one occasion than on another, and that the person performing the activity has little control over whether he or she will succeed at the task.

If a test is hard and the student thinks it will probably be equally hard the next time, even if she studies harder, this is a task difficulty attribution.

• The reason for success is external (There's nothing inside her that caused her to do badly. It must be something in the task itself.)
  
  
• The likelihood of success is stable. (She expects the same outcome, even if she herself would work harder.)
  
  
• She has no control over the outcome. (She can identify nothing she can do to change the outcome. It's just a difficult task.)

Luck is external, unstable, and uncontrollable. This means that the reason a task is difficult (or easy) lies outside the person, but not necessarily in the task itself, that the probability of success is likely to be different on one occasion than on another, and that the person performing the activity has little control over whether he or she will succeed at the task.

If a test is hard but the student thinks it will probably be easier next time, even though he has no plans to approach it differently, this is a luck attribution.

• The reason for success is external (There's nothing inside him that caused him to do badly. It must be some unspecified thing outside himself.)
  
  
• The likelihood of success is unstable. (He expects a different outcome, even though he is acting the same.)
  
  
• He has no control over the outcome. (He can identify nothing he can do to change the outcome.)

3. Students sometimes think that attributing failure to effort is the same thing as saying that the person who failed did not work hard. In other words, we are accusing the person who failed of being lazy.

Basis for the confusion: If a person failed because he did not put forth the effort, it seems obvious that he should have put forth more effort. Since he could have put forth more effort and did not do so, it sounds like he was lazy.

Clarification: Sometimes (perhaps often), all a person has to do to succeed after an effort attribution for failure is work harder - that is, spend more time on the task or stop being lazy. In many other cases, however, the person must work differently, not necessarily harder. It is reasonable for a person to feel that he has failed because he has not yet figured out the right way to approach the task. If a person does so, this is an effort attribution.

• If he feels he will never figure out the right way, this is an ability attribution.
  
  
• If he feels that there is no better way to approach the task, this is a task difficulty attribution.
  

Insinuating that a person is lazy may actually lead to an ability attribution, if the person is led to believe that he possesses a trait called laziness. The most supportive strategy when a person fails at a task is often to convince the person that he can succeed if he approaches the task differently. It is possible that this different approach will consist of spending more time on the task; but it is also possible that the different approach will consist of using a new strategy that the teacher helps him develop.

Intrinsic Motivation Exercise

1. Carla's class is part of the Galaxy Program. As part of one of the Galaxy activities, she has entered information about herself into a computerized database and has searched the database to find the other person who is most similar to her and has become an electronic pen pal with that person. She finds it to be very interesting to learn about this other person, and so she is motivated to continue participating in the program. Which motivational factor seems to be most responsible for maintaining Carla's active participation in the program?

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - self esteem
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Control - choice
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

2. Bill feels that he already knows how to spell. He thinks he is the best speller in the class and that he doesn't have to study. He gets 80's and 90's on all his tests, but his teacher would like him to do better. She arranges a spelling competition between her class and the other two fifth grades in the school. Bill realizes that there may be some better spellers in these other classes, and so he studies harder. Pretty soon he is getting almost all 100's on his tests. Which motivational factor seems to be most responsible for increasing Bill's effort to study spelling?

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - self esteem
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Control - choice
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

3. Mary feels that she is a terrible speller. She gets 30's and 40's on all her tests, but her teacher would like her to do better. She is certain she will get an F in language arts; and so she sees no point in studying very hard. Mary's teacher shows her some good ways to sound out words and to follow some simple rules in order to spell the words correctly. Mary realizes that if she follows these guidelines she may get a much higher grade than she had expected. She begins to work harder and does much better on her spelling tests. Which motivational factor seems to be most responsible for increasing Mary's effort to study spelling?

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - self esteem
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Control - choice
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

4. As Mary (Question 3) begins using her new strategy, she wants to motivate herself to stick to her use of the guidelines. She keeps a graph of her performance, and she notices that her scores go from 30's and 40's upward to 70's and 80's and eventually into the 90's. Which motivational factor is Mary using to maintain her effort to study spelling?

a. Challenge - level of certainty
b. Challenge - performance feedback
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Fantasy - emotional aspects
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

5. Mary's teacher (Questions 3 and 4) divides the class into four spelling teams. An award will be given to the team that spells the most words correctly on the final test. The teams are reasonably equal at the beginning of the contest. The students are allowed to help one another study. Since Mary wants her team to win, she studies hard. Which motivational factor is Mary using to maintain her effort to study spelling?

a. Challenge - setting goals
b. Challenge - performance feedback
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Interpersonal motivations - competition
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

Attribution Theory Exercise

1. To which of the following factors did Bill (Intrinsic Motivation Exercise, Question 2) originally attribute his success in spelling?

a. Luck
b. Effort
c. Ability
d. Task difficulty

2. To which of the following factors did Mary (Intrinsic Motivation Exercise, Question 3 through 5) originally attribute her failure in spelling?

a. Luck
b. Effort
c. Ability
d. Task difficulty

3. This attribution (Question 2) was

a. internal, unstable, and controllable
b. internal, unstable, and uncontrollable
c. external, unstable, and uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, and controllable
e. external, stable, and uncontrollable

4. As her scores improved, Mary (Questions 2 and 3) said to herself, "These new methods really pay off. I think I'll keep using them." To which of the following factors did Mary attribute her success in spelling?

a. Luck
b. Effort
c. Ability
d. Task difficulty

5. This attribution (Questions 4) was

a. internal, unstable, and controllable
b. internal, unstable, and uncontrollable
c. external, unstable, and uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, and controllable
e. external, stable, and uncontrollable

Questions 1 through 7 go together:

1. Miss Ramirez tells Juan that if he does well during the tryouts, he will be captain of the team for the Science Bowl. Juan likes this idea and studies hard for the tryouts. On which motivational factor has Miss Ramirez most directly focused Juan's attention?

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - self esteem
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Control - choice
e. Fantasy - cognitive aspects

{Check your answer.}

2. Juan is confident that he can do well on the science tryouts, but he knows that Margarita has always surpassed him. Miss Ramirez points out that Margarita will be out of town for a chess tournament that weekend, and so she will not be competing with Juan for the captain's role. On which motivational factor has Miss Ramirez now most directly focused Juan's attention?

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - self esteem
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Control - choice
e. Fantasy - cognitive aspects

{Check your answer.}

3. Juan studies hard for the tryouts, because he pictures himself as captain of a winning Science Bowl team. He studies a certain number of key concepts every night for a week. His mother asks him questions and keeps a record of his progress, which she posts on the refrigerator door. Juan knows that two of his friends also want to be captain, but he thinks he has a reasonable chance to beat them. Juan feels no animosity toward these friends, because he knows that even if he loses the role of captain, the extra studying will dramatically improve the chances that the team will win. Juan is being specifically motivated by all but one of the following factors. Choose the EXCEPTION.

a. Challenge - uncertain outcomes
b. Challenge - performance feedback
c. Curiosity - cognitive curiosity
d. Interpersonal motivations - competition
e. Interpersonal motivations - recognition

{Check your answer.}

4. On the day before the tryouts, Juan is becoming anxious; and the anxiety is making it hard to concentrate on his studies. His mother wants to help him. Which of the following would be his mother's best strategy?

a. Promise him a Type I reinforcer if he manages to study effectively.
b. Promise him a Type II or III reinforcer if he manages to study effectively.
c. Encourage him to focus on self-actualization
d. Do something to reduce his level of arousal.
e. Do something to increase his level of arousal.

{Check your answer.}

Use this information for questions 5 through 7:

Juan eventually comes in second in the race for captain, and his friend Julio becomes captain. Juan's mother is happy that Juan worked so hard, and she would like to see him continue to work hard at other academic activities. She assures Juan that he learned a great deal of interesting information while studying for the Science Bowl. Juan thinks it over, and realizes that his mother is right. She also assures him that by giving Julio a run for his money, he helped the team do better in the Science Bowl. Since the team won a silver medal, Juan accepts this statement as true and is happy about his contribution. Finally, his mother helps him analyze his study habits, and Juan realizes that there are certain things that he could do better next time in order to be even more successful.

5. When she assured Juan that he learned a great deal of interesting information while studying for the Science Bowl, on what factor of motivational theory was Juan's mother focusing?

a. curiosity - cognitive curiosity
b. attribution theory - effort
c. attribution theory - ability
d. Maslow's needs theory - belonging and love needs
e. Interpersonal motivation - competition

{Check your answer.}

6. When she assured Juan that by giving Julio a run for his money, he helped the team do better in the Science Bowl, on what factor of motivational theory was Juan's mother focusing?

a. curiosity - cognitive curiosity
b. attribution theory - effort
c. attribution theory - ability
d. Maslow's needs theory - belonging and love needs
e. Interpersonal motivation - competition

{Check your answer.}

7. When she helped Juan analyze his study habits and helped him realize that there are certain things that he could do better next time in order to be more successful, on what factor of motivational theory was Juan's mother focusing?

a. curiosity - cognitive curiosity
b. attribution theory - effort
c. attribution theory - ability
d. Maslow's needs theory - belonging and love needs
e. Interpersonal motivation - competition

{Check your answer.}

8. Matthew received a D in mathematics. He thinks this is because the teacher asked a lot of questions that he happened to find difficult. He thinks that he'll do better next time, because the questions probably won't be so hard. Matthew's attribution for his failure is

a. internal, unstable, and controllable
b. internal, unstable, and uncontrollable
c. external, unstable, and uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, and controllable
e. external, stable, and uncontrollable

{Check your answer.}

9. Rosalie received a D in mathematics. She thinks this is because mathematics is too hard for girls. She feels that she'll probably always have trouble with mathematics. Rosalie's attribution for failure is

a. internal, unstable, and controllable
b. internal, unstable, and uncontrollable
c. external, unstable, and uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, and controllable
e. external, stable, and uncontrollable

{Check your answer.}

10. Anferny received a D in mathematics. He feels he has studied hard, but he knows that there must be a better way to approach the subject, so that he can do better. Anferny's attribution for failure is

a. internal, unstable, and controllable
b. internal, unstable, and uncontrollable
c. external, unstable, and uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, and controllable
e. external, stable, and uncontrollable

{Check your answer.}

Matching Exercise

Motivation - Set 1

Match each term with the appropriate definition.

a. Challenge.
b. Cognitive curiosity.
c. Competition.
d. Control.
e. Cooperation.
f. Curiosity.
g. Fantasy.
h. Interpersonal motivation.
i. Performance feedback.
j. Recognition.
k. Sensory curiosity.

1. _____ The motivational principle that focus on the tendency for people to pursue tasks that pose a continuously optimal (intermediate) level of difficulty.
   
   
2. _____ Information that reminds learners of their status with regard to the challenge posed by the goals they have set for themselves.
   
   
3. _____ The motivational factor that focuses on the basic human tendency to seek to control one's environment.
   
   
4. _____ The motivational factor that is stimulated when something in the physical environment attracts the learner's attention or when there is an optimal level of discrepancy between the learner's present knowledge or skills and what these could be if the learner engaged in some activity.
   
   
5. _____ The motivational factor that is evoked when learners believe that it may be useful for them to modify existing cognitive structures.
   
   
6. _____ The motivational factor that is evoked when physical factors such as changes in tone of voice, light, or sound attract the attention of learners.
   
   
7. _____ The motivational factor that comes into play when learners use mental images of situations that are not actually present to stimulate their behavior.
   
   
8. _____ Factors that arise from interaction with other persons and that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in a behavior.
   
   
9. _____ The motivational factor that comes into play when learners derive satisfaction by comparing their own performance to that of others.
   
   
10. _____ The motivational factor that comes into play when learners derive satisfaction by helping other learners achieve mutually satisfying goals.
    
    
11. _____ The motivational factor that comes into play when learners enjoy having their efforts and accomplishments recognized and appreciated by others.
    

    {Click here to see answers to matching exercises.}

Motivation - Set 2

Match each term with the appropriate definition.

a. Attribution theory.
b. Ability.
c. Effort.
d. External locus of control.
e. Extrinsic Motivation.
f. Internal locus of control.
g. Intrinsic Motivation.
h. Level of arousal.
i. Luck.
j. Motivation.
k. Seductive detail.
l. Self-efficacy.
m. Task difficulty.

1. _____ The factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in a behavior.
   
   
2. _____ The factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in a behavior even when there is no external inducement to engage in that behavior.
   
   
3. _____ The factors arising outside the person that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in a behavior.
   
   
4. _____ The overall readiness of the human organism to engage in activity.
   
   
5. _____ High-interest information in a presentation that detracts attention from the main idea.
   
   
6. _____ The motivational principle that states that people are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent at those activities.
   
   
7. _____ The motivational theory that states that learners' current explanations for the success or failure of their current efforts will influence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors or pursue those same goals.
   
   
8. _____ In attribution theory, a relatively internal and stable attribution for success or failure over which the learner does not exercise much direct control.
   
   
9. _____ An internal and unstable attribution for success or failure over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control.
   
   
10. _____ An external and stable attribution for success or failure that is largely beyond the learner's control.
    
    
11. _____ An external and unstable attribution for success or failure that is largely beyond the learner's control.
    
    
12. _____ A pattern of attributing responsibility for an action to a source within the person performing the action.
    
    
13. _____ A pattern of attributing responsibility for an action to a source outside the person performing the action.
    

    {Click here to see answers to matching exercises.}

     

Motivation - Set 3

Match each term with the appropriate definition.

a. Competitive goal structure.
b. Cooperative goal structure.
c. Expectancy-valence model.
d. Individualistic goal structure.
e. Learned helplessness.
f. Learning goal.
g. Locus of control.
h. Performance goal.
i. Positive interdependence.
j. Self-fulfilling prophecy.
k. Self-Handicapping.
l. Teacher Expectancy.

1. _____ A goal set by individuals who seek to increase their competence.
   
   
2. _____ A goal set by an individual who seeks to gain favorable judgments or to avoid unfavorable judgments in the eyes of others.
   
   
3. _____ The source in which responsibility for an action originates - either inside or outside the person performing the action.
   
   
4. _____ The expectation, based on previous experience, that one's actions cannot possibly lead to success.
   
   
5. _____ A pattern of behaviors by which learners in an attempt to protect their own self-esteem create impediments that make effective performance less likely.
   
   
6. _____ A motivational theory that states that a person's motivation to achieve a goal depends on a combination of the value of that goal and the person's estimation of the likelihood of success.
   
   
7. _____ The (accidental) tendency for teachers to promote the success of learners the teachers think will be successful and to promote the failure of learners they think will fail.
   
   
8. _____ The tendency for a false definition of a situation to evoke new behavior which makes the original false conception become true.
   
   
9. _____ A goal structure in which learners perceive that they will be rewarded based on comparisons with other learners.
   
   
10. _____ A goal structure in which learners perceive that they are working together with other students to gain rewards.
    
    
11. _____ A goal structure in which learners perceive themselves as working for their own rewards, without reference to the performance of others.
    
    
12. _____ The perception that the members of a group can succeed if and only if the other members of that group are also successful.
    
    {Click here to see answers to matching exercises.}

Key Ideas

(This fill-in-the-blanks exercise can be a useful way to verify that you can recall and understand the main concepts covered in this chapter. When the answers you give differ from those in the answer key, think about it. If your answer is as good as mine, that's great! However, there's a good chance that in many cases my answer may be better than yours. Try to find the logic behind my answer. The more actively you think - by looking for reasons and explanations - the more valuable this exercise will be for you.)

(Also note that after you have filled in the blanks, this set of Key Ideas provides a good summary of the chapter.)

1. Motivation in education deals with the problem of setting up ___________ and ___________ conditions under which learners will perform to the best of their abilities in academic settings.
   
   
2. Malone and Lepper have defined ___________ motivation in terms of what people will do without external inducement.
   
   
3. ___________ motivating activities are those in which people will engage for no reward other than the interest and enjoyment that accompanies them.
   
   
4. Even though intrinsic motivation is highly desirable, most of the activities in which teachers, students, and other human beings engage are most directly influenced by ___________ rather than intrinsic motivation.
   
   
5. Extrinsic motivators may lead to merely short-range activity while actually ___________ long-range interest in a topic.
   
   
6. In order for behavior to become persistent, it is essential that extrinsic motivators be backed up by ___________ motivators or that the extrinsic motivation become ___________.
   
   
7. Motivation increases when people feel that an activity provides a continuously ___________ (intermediate) level of difficulty.
   
   
8. Learners are most motivated by challenge when they direct their activities toward personally ___________ goals in such a way that attainment of the goals is ___________ - when neither success nor failure is guaranteed.
   
   
9. An ideal motivational system involves ___________ goals that lead to ___________ goals.
   
   
10. Learners should be aware of both ___________ and ___________ goals.
    
    
11. The level of certainty of academic tasks can be manipulated by such strategies as changing or ___________ the difficulty level of tasks or goals or by introducing ___________ elements such as randomness or various scorekeeping systems into the learning environment.
    
    
12. ___________ feedback reminds learners of their status with regard to the challenge posed by the goals they are trying to attain.
    
    
13. Self-esteem is related to motivation because learners consider themselves to be good or competent to the extent that they succeed at ___________ that they consider to be important.
    
    
14. ___________meaningful goals are the most motivating goals.
    
    
15. The meaningfulness of goals can be increased by (1) making clear the ___________ between an activity and competencies or outcomes valued by the learner, (2) relating material to a ___________ or imaginary context that the learner finds emotionally appealing, or (3) eliciting ___________ motivations such as cooperation, competition, or recognition that appeal to the learner.
    
    
16. Curiosity is stimulated when something in the physical ___________ attracts our attention or when there is an optimal level of ___________ between present knowledge or skills and what these could be if the learner engaged in some activity.
    
    
17. Sensory curiosity occurs when ___________ factors such as changes in tone of voice, light, or sound attract the attention of learners.
    
    
18. When computer programs zoom in on information, emit sounds, or use animation to attract attention, they are stimulating the ___________ curiosity of learners.
    
    
19. Cognitive curiosity is evoked when learners believe that it may be useful to ___________ existing cognitive structures.
    
    
20. The concept of optimal discrepancy suggests that curiosity is ___________ when new information does not match what we currently know but is not so ___________ as to appear to be completely strange, irrelevant, or impossible to attain.
    
    
21. Learners are motivated most strongly by curiosity when learning tasks present them with knowledge or problems at an optimal level of ___________.
    
    
22. Control refers to the basic human tendency to seek to control one's ___________.
    
    
23. Learners perceive themselves to be in control when (1) they see a clear ___________ relationship between their own actions and obtaining desired benefits, (2) they can freely ___________ to perform these actions, and (3) they perceive the outcomes of their actions to be ___________ effects.
    
    
24. The feeling of loss of control is one of the most powerful anti-motivating factors in education.
    
    
25. Fantasy plays a role when learners use ___________ images of situations that are not actually present to stimulate their behavior.
    
    
26. With exogenous fantasies there is little or no intrinsic ___________ between the learning and the fantasy.
    
    
27. With ___________ fantasies there is an intrinsic connection between the learning and the fantasy.
    
    
28. In addition to individual factors in motivation, there are other factors that arise from ___________ with other people.
    
    
29. Competition motivates behavior because people can enhance their own ___________ when they are able to make favorable evaluations of themselves by comparing their performance to that of others.
    
    
30. With cooperation learners derive ___________ from working toward group goals.
    
    
31. Recognition refers to the motivational factor that comes into play when learners enjoy having their efforts and ___________ recognized and appreciated by others.
    
    
32. The most important factor in the use of extrinsic motivation is that extrinsic incentives should not be perceived as ___________ by the recipient.
    
    
33. It is far better to use ___________ (natural) rather than extrinsic (___________) reinforcement and punishment.
    
    
34. Only consequences that the learner himself or herself perceives to be ___________ will motivate that learner.
    
    
35. There are numerous incentives and consequences ___________ for a learner's attention at any given time. The factors that the learner perceives to have the ___________ combined influence will usually determine the learner's course of action.
    
    
36. People will engage more often and more eagerly in behaviors related to topics, people, and events toward which they have ___________ tendencies.
    
    
37. People will engage more often and more eagerly in behaviors related to topics. people, and events that have high ___________ valence.
    
    
38. People will engage more often and more eagerly in behaviors related to topics. people, and events regarding which they have ___________ attitudes.
    
    
39. Level of ___________ refers to the overall readiness of the human organism to engage in activity.
    
    
40. People at either a very ___________ level or at a very ___________ level of arousal learn very little. People tend to learn best at a medium level of arousal.
    
    
41. Interesting information is learned more ___________ than uninteresting information. This is true whether the interest springs from ___________ the individual or arises because the information is presented in an interesting manner.
    
    
42. Teachers should make ___________ ideas rather than peripheral ideas as interesting as possible.
    
    
43. In general, texts become more interesting when they contain ___________ information, are related to personal goals of the readers, and contain human interest elements; and these same elements are likely to increase the interest of non-text presentations.
    
    
44. Making educational material more interesting can actually backfire by reducing learning if the interesting material is not of ___________ importance to the unit of instruction.
    
    
45. The term ___________ detail refers to high-interest information in a presentation that detracts attention from the main idea.
    
    
46. Maslow lists ___________ basic needs and ___________ growth needs.
    
    
47. Maslow's needs are ___________; that is, lower level needs must be at least temporarily satisfied before learners can be motivated by higher needs.
    
    
48. Self-efficacy theory suggests that people are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be ___________ at those activities.
    
    
49. Bandura suggests that one of the most important aspects of self-efficacy is the person's perception of ___________ efficacy. In other words, students will learn better if they believe that they are good at managing their thinking strategies in a productive manner.
    
    
50. Attribution theory holds that learners' current explanations for the success or failure of their current efforts will influence their ___________ tendency to perform these same behaviors or pursue those same goals.
    
    
51. Attribution theory runs parallel to ___________ theory and to self-efficacy theory in the sense that it emphasizes that learners' current self-perceptions will strongly influence the ways in which they will ___________ the success or failure of their current efforts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors.
    
    
52. A basic assumption of attribution theory is that people will interpret their environment in such a way as to ___________ a positive self-image.
    
    
53. A basic assumption of attribution theory is that people will tend to attribute their successes or failures to factors that will enable them to feel as ___________ as possible about themselves.
    
    
54. Ability is a relatively internal and ___________ factor over which the learner does not exercise much direct control - although learners may vary in their perceptions of how stable this factor is and how much control they have over it.
    
    
55. Task difficulty is an ___________ and stable factor that is largely beyond the learner's control.
    
    
56. Effort is an internal and ___________ factor over which the learner can exercise a great deal of control.
    
    
57. Luck is an external and ___________ factor over which the learner exercises very little control.
    
    
58. The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to motivation is that a person's own ___________ or attributions for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.
    
    
59. Students will be most ___________ at academic tasks if they attribute their academic successes to either internal, unstable, factors over which they have control (such as ___________) or internal, stable, factors over which they have little control but which may sometimes be disrupted by other factors .
    
    
60. It is not beneficial for students to attribute their successes entirely to ability.
    
    
61. When students fail, they are most likely to persist and eventually succeed if they accurately attribute their failure to a lack of appropriate ___________.
    
    
62. It is extremely hazardous to motivational health for students to ___________ repeatedly after making a serious effort at academic tasks. When this happens, they will either (a) stop believing they are competent, or (b) stop attributing their failure to lack of ___________.
    
    
63. Effort is most usefully defined as devoting effective ___________ to the task. Just trying harder or spending more time doing ineffective activities does not constitute effort.
    
    
64. It is ___________ to evaluate students at least partly (but not exclusively) on the basis of their effort.
    
    
65. In general, it is best for students to believe that it is their own behavior rather than ___________ circumstances that leads to success or failure.
    
    
66. While it is good for students to have a realistic understanding of what's happening around them, research shows that the most successful students have a tendency to ___________ the degree to which their own behavior leads to success or failure.
    
    
67. Learning goals are set by individuals who seek to increase their ___________.
    
    
68. People who emphasize learning goals are likely to seek ___________ tend to respond to failure by increasing their effort.
    
    
69. It is good to encourage students to set and pursue ___________ goals rather than ___________ goals.
    
    
70. Performance goals are set by individuals who seek to gain favorable ___________ or to avoid unfavorable judgments in the eyes of others.
    
    
71. People who emphasize ___________ goals tend to respond to failure with feelings of learned helplessness.
    
    
72. It is often ___________ to emphasize performance goals; but schools, parents, and society often overemphasize them to the detriment of learners.
    
    
73. The term ___________ refers to the expectation, based on previous experience, that one's actions cannot possibly lead to success.
    
    
74. Performance goals are much ___________ likely than learning goals to lead to ability rather than effort attributions and to result in feelings of learned helplessness.
    
    
75. Self-handicapping occurs when learners create ___________ that make good performance less likely. Examples of impediments include drug and alcohol use, refusing to practice, reporting excessive symptoms, and reducing effort.
    
    
76. Expectancy-valence models state that a person's motivation to achieve a goal depends on a ___________ of the value of that goal (its valence) and the person's estimation of the likelihood of success.
    
    
77. There is clear evidence that early adolescents show a marked ___________ in academic motivation during their transition from elementary school to middle school or junior high school.
    
    
78. Research shows that there is a tendency for teachers to get what they ___________ from their students.
    
    
79. The term ___________ prophecy refers to the idea that a false definition of the situation evokes a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true.
    
    
80. Although teacher expectancy can operate on isolated students, it usually occurs because teachers engage in ___________.
    
    
81. A ___________ goal structure is one in which learners perceive that they will be rewarded based on comparisons with other learners. One person can win in a competition only if another loses.
    
    
82. An ___________ goal structure is one in which learners perceive themselves as working for their own rewards. In this environment, a student need not be concerned about what anyone else is accomplishing. Their goal is to meet the ___________ which they or the teacher have established.
    
    
83. A ___________ goal structure is one in which learners perceive that they are working together with other students to gain rewards. In this environment, a student's success depends on the comparable success of other students. An important goal of students in a cooperative classroom is to encourage and enable other students to ___________.
    
    
84. Competitive environments take advantage of the apparently ___________ inclination of human beings to develop and enhance their own ___________ by comparing their own performance to that of others.
    
    
85. When working individualistically, learners pursue their own objectives without ___________ their own performance to anyone else's (as would be the case in a competitive goal structure) and without ___________ on other learners (as would be the case in a cooperative goal structure)
    
    
86. Effective cooperative learning has two major components: positive ___________ and individual ___________ .
    

    {Click here to see answers to Key Ideas exercise.}

     

Answers to Quiz and Exercises:

Intrinsic Motivation Exercise

1. c

2. e

3. a

4. b

5. d

Attribution Theory Exercise

1. c

2. c

3. b

4. b

5. a

Motivation Unit Quiz

1. Answer to Question 1: (b) Of all the possibilities given here, challenge with a focus on self esteem seems to be the best answer. It sounds like being captain of the team is something that would make Juan feel good about himself, and she is helping him set that as a goal, which will constitute a challenge for Juan.

The answer is not (a) because Miss Ramirez is doing nothing to manipulate or modify his level of certainty. If Juan wanted to be captain but thought he couldn't and Miss Ramirez did something to increase his confidence, or if he were overconfident and she convinced him that he wouldn't be captain unless he worked harder, then the answer would be (a).

Return to Question 1.

Go to Question 2.

2. Answer to Question 2: (a) Miss Ramirez is doing something to modify Juan's level of certainty. Juan wants to be captain but he thinks he has little chance, because he knows that Margarita has always surpassed him. Miss Ramirez is increasing his confidence that he can attain the outcome by telling him that he does not have to compete with Margarita this time.

The answer is not (b). Although being captain will probably be good for his self concept, this is not at all a factor in what Miss Ramirez is doing in this question. All she is doing here is maximizing the challenge by moving him to a medium level of certainty &endash; if he works, he has a chance to meet his goal.

Return to Question 2.

Go to Question 3.

3. Answer to Question 3: (c) Cognitive curiosity refers to the notion that Juan would study because the information is interesting &endash; because he is simply curious to learn more about it. This may be the case, but that concept is not mentioned at all in the anecdote.

(a) is a motivating factor, because he has to work hard to beat out the other students for team captain. If he works hard he has a chance, but if he doesn't work hard he won't be captain. That's a medium level of certainty, and the anecdote says that is a factor in his motivation.

(b) is a motivating factor, because Juan's mother keeps a record of his progress, which she posts on the refrigerator door.

(d) is a motivating factor, because Juan hopes to derive satisfaction from seeing his team perform better than the other teams.

(e) is a motivating factor, because Juan takes obvious pride in the idea of being recognized as captain of a successful team. Recognition refers to the notion that learners may enjoy having their efforts and accomplishments recognized and appreciated by others.

Return to Question 3.

Go to Question 4.

4. Answer to Question 4: (d) People learn best at a medium level of arousal. Since Juan is extremely anxious, it would be a good idea to do something to lower his level of arousal.

Return to Question 4.

Go to Question 5.

5. Answer to Question 5: (a) Juan is also motivated by other factors, but when his mother assured Juan that he learned a great deal of interesting information while studying for the Science Bowl, she was focusing on his cognitive curiosity.

The answer is not (b). Although Juan did make serious effort that contributed to what he learned, his mother is focusing on the fact that the information was interesting.

Return to Question 5.

Go to Question 6.

6. Answer to Question 6: (e) She is comparing the performance of the team (of which Juan was a part) to the performance of other teams.

The answer is not (b). Although Juan did make serious effort that contributed to the team's success, his mother is focusing on the fact that the team did well compared to the other teams.

Return to Question 6.

Go to Question 7.

7. Answer to Question 7: (b) Here she is focusing on the reasons why he was successful and how he could be more successful. She is promoting the notion that he largely succeeded (and partially failed) because of factors that were inside him, that he could control, and which he could manipulate in order to change the outcome next time. That is, his attribution was internal, unstable, and controllable. That's a description of an effort attribution.

Return to Question 7.

Go to Question 8.

8. Answer to Question 8: (c) This is a luck attribution. His failure occurred because of something external (outside him) - that is, the teacher is the one who wrote the hard questions. The attribution is unstable (the outcome is likely to be different next time) &endash; that is, he thinks the questions probably won't be so hard the next time. And he feels his success or failure is beyond his control. According to attribution theory, that's a definition of (c) luck. This attribution is not likely to stimulate him to study harder for the next test.

Return to Question 8.

Go to Question 9.

9. Answer to Question 9: (e) This could also be an ability attribution, but internal, stable, and uncontrollable is not an option. Of the remaining choices, only (e) makes sense. The structure of mathematics is outside her, and it's complex. That structure is not going to change, and so math will always be difficult; and so it's stable. She has no control over whether she will succeed or fail, and so it's uncontrollable. That makes it an (e) task difficulty attribution. This attribution is not likely to stimulate her to study harder for the next test.

Return to Question 9.

Go to Question 10.

10. Answer to Question 10: (a) This is an effort attribution. The way he studied arose from an internal decision. If he studies differently, he thinks he'll get a different result; and so the attribution is unstable. He can control how he studies, and so he believes the outcome is controllable. That makes it an (a) effort attribution. This attribution is likely to stimulate him to study harder for the next test.

Return to Question 10.

Matching Exercises:

Set 1

1. a

2. i

3. d

4. f

5. b

6. k

7. g

8. h

9. c

10. e

11. j

Set 2

1. j

2. g

3. e

4. h

5. k

6. l

7. a

8. b

9. c

10. m

11. i

12. f

13. d

Set 3

1. f

2. h

3. g

4. e

5. k

6. c

7. l

8. j

9. a

10. b

11. d

12. i

Key Ideas

1. internal; external

2. intrinsic

3. Intrinsically

4. extrinsic

5. reducing

6. intrinsic; internalized

7. optimal

8. meaningful; uncertain

9. short-term; long-term

10. short-term; long-term

11. clarifying; gamelike

12. Performance

13. challenges

14. Personally

15. links; fantasy; interpersonal

16. environment; discrepancy

17. physical

18. sensory

19. modify

20. strongest; different

21. discrepancy

22. environment

23. cause-and-effect; choose; powerful

24. loss

25. mental

26. connection

27. endogenous

28. interactions

29. self-esteem

30. satisfaction

31. accomplishments

32. bribes

33. intrinsic; artificial

34. reinforcing

35. competing; strongest

36. approach

37. positive

38. positive

39. arousal

40. low; high

41. easily: within

42. important

43. surprising

44. central

45. seductive

46. four; three

47. hierarchical

48. competent

49. self-regulatory

50. future

51. cognitive; interpret

52. maintain

53. good

54. stable

55. external

56. unstable

57. external

58. perceptions

59. persistent; effort

60. not beneficial

61. effort

62. fail; effort

63. academic learning time

64. useful

65. external

66. overestimate

67. competence

68. challenges

69. learning; performance

70. judgments

71. performance

72. undesirable

73. learned helplessness

74. more

75. impediments

76. combination

77. decline

78. expect

79. self-fulfilling

80. stereotyping

81. competitive

82. individualistic; standards

83. cooperative; succeed

84. natural; self-esteem

85. comparing; depending

86. interdependence; responsibility