The following are the objectives of this chapter:

1. Describe the major categories of thinking skills, including the following:
   
   a. learning-to-learn skills
   b. content thinking skills
   c. basic reasoning skills
   
   (Review Questions 1-7)
   (Review Questions 9)
   (Matching Exercises 1 and 2)
   
   
2. Describe the basic metacognitive skills and how they function.
   
   (Review Questions 8-10)
   (Matching Exercises 2)
   
   
3. Describe the general strategies for helping students develop their thinking skills.
   
   
4. Describe the concept of creativity and strategies for helping students develop higher degrees of creativity.

Possible Problems and Solutions:

Students find several terms to be confusing in this chapter. A major part of the problem is that the theorists themselves are confused. It's almost impossible to look in two good books on the topic of thinking skills and find the same terms used to describe higher order thinking processes.

This section will try to help eliminate confusion about terms that are often confused. In some cases distinctions are not worth making. I'll try to point out when this is the case; and I would encourage instructors not to design test items that require students to make distinctions among such terms.

In other cases, however, the distinctions are important. Using the terms correctly can lead to more productive thought. For example, many people seem to use the term critical thinking to refer to any kind of careful thinking or problem solving. It is more productive to use this term in the way cognitive psychologists seem to have agreed to use it, and to use other terms to refer to other types of thinking or problem solving.

1. Students often think that cognitive restructuring refers to the reorganization of information in the brain. This would make sense, but this is not the way learning theorists use the term. The constant reorganization of knowledge in the brain is referred to by such terms as assimilation, accommodation, and construction of knowledge, but not cognitive restructuring These terms are discussed in Chapter 4. The term cognitive restructuring simply means that the learner uses cognitive (intellectual) processes to restructure (state in a different manner) the information that he or she is trying to process. The theorists could have used a term like self-talk to describe this process (and some do use this term), but cognitive restructuring seems to be gaining prominence as the best term. This is a learning-to-learn skill because learners who do this kind of active self-talk make it more likely that the information will be transferred from working memory to long-term memory and that it will be retrieved when it is needed for subsequent use.

2. Students often confuse the learning-to-learn skills presented at the beginning of the chapter with the metacognitive skills presented later. There is good reason for this confusion: the skills overlap considerably. It is not useful to make a distinction, for example, between self-evaluation and self-regulation. The presentation of thinking skills at the beginning of the chapter is supposed to cover all possible human thinking skills. It is not surprising, therefore, that these overlap with metacognitive skills, which are a subset of this broader category. The reason for the confusion is that the two sets of terms were developed by different people. Both sets are useful. Try to understand both and to profit from the insights, but don't worry about making distinctions among terms from the different sets.

3. Students often confuse analogical reasoning with extrapolation. The two types of basic reasoning skills are, in fact, similar. The main difference is that analogical reasoning is more refined. When people are faced with a new problem or situation, they have to use their existing knowledge to deal with it. They extrapolate by trying what they already know in the new situation.

For example, when I am using my word processor to type the draft of this, I might decide that I would this present paragraph to be indented between the preceding and subsequent paragraphs. If I am using a new word processor, I might not know how to do this. Using extrapolation, I would first try what used to work on my old word processor. When that doesn't work, I might say to myself, "What things that have worked in the past might work here?" Some of my efforts might look for fairly remote ideas (that is, I might have to extrapolate further). Using analogical reasoning, I would make a more specific comparison. I would say, "Using this set of commands is in the logic system of my MS-DOS computer comparable to what set of commands in the logic of the Macintosh computer?"

It seems to me that analogical reasoning combines categorization and extrapolation: the learner first categorizes the new and old piece of information, and then makes a thoughtful comparison of important features of the two. (I need to go back to the original sources on this to get a better clarification.)

4. Some students use the term critical thinking to refer to creative thinking, to problem solving, or to any other sort of careful thinking. {This section is currently not complete in the textbook.}

5. Some students are confused by the appearance of goal setting as a thinking skill in this chapter, whereas in chapter 5 it was discussed as an aspect of intrinsic motivation. This is not a contradiction. All it means is that being able to motivate oneself is an important learning-to-learn skill.

Teaching Students to Use Analogies

Miss Hughes and a few students are discussing a story about a football player.

Miss Hughes: It says here, "The quarterback barked his signals." What analogy is the writer using?

Ralph: He's saying that the quarterback was telling them when to hike the ball.

Miss Hughes: That's what he's doing, but an analogy is a comparison. What comparison is the writer making?

Bonnie: He's suggesting that the quarterback sounded like a dog.

Miss Hughes writes on the board:

Quarterback

calls signals

Miss Hughes: Ralph, finish the analogy.

As Ralph gives the answer, Miss Hughes finishes the analogy on the board:

Quarterback	Dog
calls signals	barks

Miss Hughes: John, how do you think the quarterback sounded?

John barks the signals appropriately.

Miss Hughes: Let's change the analogy.

Miss Hughes crosses out the dog information in the right column and replaces it with the following:

 

Quarterback	Snake
calls signals	hisses

Miss Hughes: Roberta, call the signals.

Roberta hisses the signals.

Miss Hughes: Snakes sound dangerous or hostile. What if the author wanted to say that the quarterback sounded timid and harmless? What animal could be used for the analogy?

Bonnie: A mouse.

Ralph: A small songbird.

Miss Hughes: Good ideas. So what would your sentence be, Ralph?

Miss Hughes erases the snake information and writes the following on the board, while Ralph thinks:

 

Quarterback	Songbird
calls signals

Miss Hughes: What do songbirds do?

John: They sing.

Miss Hughes: Let's think of a more descriptive or vivid word.

Ralph: Hey, that's great! They chirp. The quarterback chirped the signals!

Miss Hughes: I like that sentence. The quarterback doesn't scare me at all. Bonnie, what would your sentence be?

Bonnie: The quarterback squeaked his signals.

Roberta: Let's make him fierce, like a lion. The quarterback roared his signals!

(Miss Hughes is using a language arts unit on metaphorical language to demonstrate and teach analogical reasoning to her students. Similar lessons could be employed in social studies, in science, and in other curriculum areas.)

Unit Quiz

Use this information for questions 1-9

Maribeth has been learning to use a word processor to type her written assignments in college. She has discovered that if she reads a chapter of the manual and then runs the tutorial, she learns more effectively than if she runs the tutorial first and then reads the manual. At first she has trouble remembering what keys to press for certain functions (such as to delete text or to find or replace a word), but she soon discovers that the keys are usually related to the first letter of the function (such as d for delete and f for find), and so she learns to use the key commands effectively.

1. When Maribeth focuses on her realization that she learns better through one method than another and makes a decision to employ that method, she is employing

a. content thinking skills
b. metacognitive skills
c. basic reasoning skills
d. matching skills
e. storage and retrieval skills

 {Check your answer.}

2. When Maribeth learned that the d key enabled her to delete text, she was developing

a. a content thinking skill
b. a metacognitive skill
c. a basic reasoning skill
d. scaffolding

{Check your answer.}  

3. The first few times she wanted to delete text, Maribeth said to herself, "D is for delete. I'll press d to delete this text." This enabled her to remember the association between the d key and the command to delete. By saying these words to herself, Maribeth was employing a(n) _________________ to help her remember this association.

a. content thinking skill
b. goal setting skill
c. basic reasoning skill
d. scaffold
e. attention control strategy

{Check your answer.}  

4. Another benefit of the strategy Maribeth employed in question 3 is that she became acutely aware of what she was doing. By being aware of what she was doing, she was able to notice when she was off task and make appropriate adjustments. Which of the following terms applies to this aspect of the process of talking to herself?

a. matching skill
b. cognitive restructuring
c. basic reasoning skill
d. metacognitive skill
e. storage and retrieval skill

{Check your answer.}  

5. When is Maribeth demonstrating a specific example of a learning-to-learn skill?

a. When she set the goal of learning to use the word processor in order to be able to type her college assignments.
b. When she eventually learned that d meant delete.
c. When she read the manual before running the tutorial.
d. When she ran the tutorial before reading the manual.

{Check your answer.}  

6. Which of the following is an example of declarative knowledge?

a. Maribeth knows how to use the word processor to enter, edit, and print data.
b. Maribeth is able to delete text when she needs to do so.
c. Maribeth knows how to move text from one location to another in a manuscript on her word processor.
d. All of the above
e. None of the above.

{Check your answer.}  

7. Which of the following is an example of procedural knowledge?

a. Maribeth knows how to use the word processor to enter, edit, and print data.
b. Maribeth is able to delete text when she needs to do so.
c. Maribeth knows how to move text from one location to another in a manuscript on her word processor.
d. All of the above
e. None of the above.

{Check your answer.}  

8. Which of the following is an example of a metacognitive skill?

a. Maribeth knows how to use the word processor to enter, edit, and print data.
b. Maribeth is able to delete text when she needs to do so.
c. Maribeth knows how to move text from one location to another in a manuscript on her word processor.
d. All of the above
e. None of the above.

{Check your answer.}  

9. Which of the following is an example of a basic reasoning skill?

a. Maribeth knows how to use the word processor to enter, edit, and print data.
b. Maribeth is able to delete text when she needs to do so.
c. Maribeth knows how to move text from one location to another in a manuscript on her word processor.
d. All of the above
e. None of the above.

{Check your answer.}  

10. Jake does badly in any subject involving reading, because he reads entire passages without even realizing that he understands little of what he is reading. What skill should Jake develop, in order to become a better reader?

a. cognitive restructuring
b. metacomprehension
c. metamemory
d. matching skills
e. storage and retrieval skills

{Check your answer.}  

Matching Exercises

Set 1

Match each term with the appropriate definition.

a. Analogical reasoning
b. Attention control
c. Categorization
d. Cognitive restructuring
e. Composing
f. Declarative knowledge
g. Elaboration
h. Evaluation of logic
i. Evaluation of value
j. Executive procedures
k. Extrapolation
l. Goal setting
m. Matching skills
n Problem solving
o. Procedural knowledge
p. Self-evaluation.
q. Storage and retrieval skills

1. _____ The set of learning-to-learn skills whereby students set standards for themselves that challenge their capabilities.
   
   
2. _____ The set of learning-to-learn skills that involves monitoring progress toward a goal. This includes both making plans and determining the extent to which these plans have been achieved.
   
   
3. _____ The set of learning-to-learn skills that involves verbal mediation and affirmation; that is talking to ourselves about a task (verbal mediation), and making statements to ourselves that demonstrate positive self-beliefs regarding a task.
   
   
4. _____ The set of learning-to-learn skills that involves the students' awareness of when they are and are not attending to a task.
   
   
5. _____ Factual information about basic concepts and large organizational patterns of information.
   
   
6. _____ Information about a process and when to use it.
   
   
7. _____ Basic reasoning skills that enable the thinker to transfer information to and from long-term memory.
   
   
8. _____ Basic reasoning skills that enable a learner to determine how incoming information is similar to or different from information already stored in long-term memory. These skills include categorization, extrapolation, analogical reasoning, evaluation of logic, and evaluation of value.
   
   
9. _____ A matching (basic reasoning) skill that enables learners to classify objects or ideas as belonging to a group and having the characteristics of that group.
   
   
10. _____ A matching (basic reasoning) skill that enables learners to match the pattern of information from one area to that found in another area.
    
    
11. _____ A matching (basic reasoning) skill that involves seeing the similarities among essentially different objects or ideas and using existing knowledge about the first set of objects or ideas to understand the others.
    
    
12. _____ A matching (basic reasoning) skill that enables the learner to compare the structure of information with a formalized system of logic to see if the information is valid or true.
    
    
13. _____ A matching (basic reasoning) skill that enables the learner to compare information to an internalized value system and to analyze the logic of that value system.
    
    
14. _____ A set of basic reasoning skills that enable learners to coordinate a set of other skills in order help them build new cognitive structures or drastically restructure old ones. These procedures include elaboration, problem solving, and composing.
    
    
15. _____ An executive procedure (basic thinking skill) that enables the learner to infer information not explicitly stated in what the learner saw or heard.
    
    
16. _____ An executive procedure (basic reasoning skill) that enables the learner to find information or a strategy to achieve a goal.
    
    
17. _____ An executive procedure (basic reasoning skill) that enables the learner to create new linguistic information. It can be viewed as a specific type of problem solving, in which the problem is to communicate ideas in an appropriate way to achieve a goal.

Set 2

Match each term with the appropriate definition.

a. Basic reasoning skills
b. Cognitive strategy instruction
c. Content thinking skills
d. Learning-to-learn skills
e. Metacognitive skills
f. Metamemory
g. Metacomprehension
h. Prior knowledge
i. Scaffolding
j. Self-Regulation

1. _____ Those strategies that facilitate a student's understanding of subject area material. These skills can be subdivided into declarative (factual) and procedural knowledge.
   
   
2. _____ The general skills that enable students to profit from instruction, including attention control, goal setting, cognitive restructuring, and self-evaluation.
   
   
3. _____ A set of strategies that enable learners to be aware of their own knowledge and to understand, control, and manipulate their own cognitive processes.
   
   
4. _____ Previously learned skills or information that are necessary or useful for subsequent learning. In Gagne's model, the learner recalls to working memory relevant prior knowledge after developing an expectancy and before focusing selective perception on the new learning.
   
   
5. _____ Those processes basic to cognition of all forms, including storage and retrieval skills, matching skills, and executive procedures.
   
   
6. _____ A set of skills that enable learners to monitor the degree to which they understand information being communicated to them, to recognize failures in comprehension, and to employ repair strategies when failures are identified.
   
   
7. _____ A set of skills that enables learners to understand and to be aware of their own memory systems and strategies and to use their memories effectively.
   
   
8. _____ The ability of learners to make adjustments in their own learning processes in response to their perception of feedback regarding their current status of learning.
   
   
9. _____ One of several labels that can be applied to attempts to teach cognitive skills or to help students process information in meaningful ways and become independent learners.
   
   
10. _____ A set of strategies that combine direct instruction, modeling, and constructivist theory to teach thinking skills by initially giving learners prompts and support, which are gradually withdrawn as the learners themselves become more capable of performing these skills.

Key Ideas:

(These fill-in-the-blanks exercises can be a useful way to verify that you can recall and understand the main concepts covered in this chapter. When the answers you give differ from those in the answer key, think about it. If your answer is as good as mine, that's great! However, there's a good chance that in many cases my answer may be better than yours. Try to find the logic behind my answer. The more actively you think - by looking for reasons and explanations - the more valuable this exercise will be for you.)

(Also note that after you have filled in the blanks, this set of Key Ideas provides a good summary of the chapter.)

1. Learning-to-learn skills are the general skills that enable students to profit from _____________.
   
   
2. The term _____________ control refers to a set of learning-to-learn skills that involve the students' awareness of when they are and are not attending to a task. If learners develop _____________ control of this process, learning improves.
   
    
3. Successful students set _____________ that challenge their capabilities.
   
    
4. _____________ goals are more likely to be completed than long-term goals.
   
    
5. Students will learn more if they can set both long-term and short-term goals and know the _____________ between them.
   
    
6. Weak students often read academic materials simply because they are told to do so; but good students see a _____________ in their reading.
   
    
7. The term cognitive _____________ refers to a set of learning-to-learn skills that involve verbal mediation and affirmation.
   
    
8. When we talk to ourselves about a task (verbal _____________), our thoughts apparently become more salient and more _____________.
   
    
9. An affirmation is the statement of a positive _____________ regarding a task. Students who make positive affirmations and who talk to themselves _____________ about tasks learn more effectively than students who do not do so.
   
    
10. The term self-evaluation refers to a set of learning-to-learn skills that focus on _____________ progress toward a goal. This includes both making plans and determining the extent to which these plans have been _____________.
    
     
11. Content thinking skills are those strategies that facilitate a student's understanding of subject area material. These skills can be subdivided into _____________ (factual) and _____________ knowledge.
    
     
12. Declarative knowledge refers to information about basic concepts and large organizational _____________ of information.
    
     
13. Procedural knowledge refers to knowing a process and _____________ to use it.
    
     
14. The first stage in the development of procedural thinking skills is the cognitive stage, at which the child can _____________ a process and perform a crude approximation of it.
    
     
15. The second stage in the development of procedural thinking skills is the associative stage, at which _____________ are detected and the procedure is gradually "smoothed out."
    
     
16. The third stage in the development of procedural thinking skills is the autonomous stage, at which the procedure is refined at eventually reaches a level of _____________ where it requires little thought or energy for execution.
    
     
17. The term prior knowledge is often employed to refer to content thinking skills that are _____________ or would influence a particular unit of instruction.
    
     
18. Basic reasoning skills are those processes basic to _____________ of all forms.
    
    
19. Storage and retrieval skills enable the thinker to transfer information to and from _____________ memory.
    
     
20. _____________ skills enable a learner to determine how incoming information is similar to or different from information already stored in long-term memory.
    
     
21. Categorization enables learners to classify objects or ideas as belonging to a _____________ and having the characteristics of that group. This speeds up the thinking process, making it possible to _____________ and to go beyond the information immediately given by the isolated object or idea.
    
     
22. Extrapolation enables learners to match the pattern of _____________ from one area to that found in another area. This strategy assists the thinking process by making it _____________ to start from scratch when learners encounter new information; instead, the learner takes information that already exists for a different purpose and adapts it to a new situation.
    
     
23. Analogical reasoning involves seeing the _____________ among essentially different objects or ideas and using existing knowledge about the first set of objects or ideas to understand the others.
    
     
24. Analogical reasoning enables learners to combine the first two basic reasoning processes (categorization and extrapolation) in order to deal with new information and new _____________ more effectively.
    
     
25. Evaluation of _____________ is the process of comparing the structure of information with a formalized system of logic to see if the information is valid or true.
    
    
26. Evaluation of _____________ is the process of matching information to an internalized value system and analyzing the logic of that value system.
    
    
27. Executive procedures enable learners to coordinate a set of other skills in order help learners build new cognitive structures or drastically _____________ old ones.
    
     
28. Elaboration is the process of _____________ information not explicitly stated in what the learner saw or heard.
    
     
29. Problem solving is the process of _____________ information or a strategy to achieve a goal.
    
     
30. Composing is the process of creating new _____________ information. It can be viewed as a specific type of problem solving, in which the problem is to _____________ ideas in an appropriate way to achieve a goal.
    
     
31. Under ordinary circumstances, when they are learned in school thinking skills are usually learned within _____________ subject areas.
    
     
32. Metacognition refers to learners' _____________ of their own knowledge and their ability to understand, control, and manipulate their own cognitive processes.
    
     
33. Metamemory refers to the learners' awareness of and _____________ about their own memory systems and strategies for using their memories effectively.
    
     
34. Metamemory includes (a) awareness of different memory strategies, (b) knowledge of which strategy to use for a particular memory task, and (c) knowledge of _____________ to use a given memory strategy most effectively.
    
    
35. Metacomprehension refers to the learners' ability to _____________ the degree to which they understand information being communicated to them, to recognize failures to comprehend, and to employ _____________ strategies when failures are identified.
    
     
36. Learners with poor metacomprehension skills often finish reading passages without even knowing that they have not _____________ it. On the other hand, learners who are more adept at metacomprehension will check for _____________ or inconsistency, and undertake a corrective strategy, such as rereading, relating different parts of the text to one another, looking for topic sentences or summary paragraphs, or relating the current information to prior knowledge.
    
     
37. Self-regulation refers to the learners' ability to make _____________ in their own learning processes in response to their perception of feedback regarding their current status of learning.
    
     
38. While it is occasionally useful to _____________ reflect on one's metacognitive processes and while it useful to make learners aware of these processes while they are trying to acquire them, these skills become most effective when they become overlearned and _____________.
    
     
39. Learners with good metacognitive skills are able to monitor and _____________ their own learning processes.
    
     
40. Metacognitive and cognitive theory is deeply rooted in _____________, including the ideas of Piaget and in contemporary insights from cognitive science and information processing
    
     
41. One reason for developmental maturity of _____________ operational learners is that they are more skilled that younger learners at using appropriate metacognitive skills to assimilate and accommodate information. Of course, they have acquired this higher level of _____________ skills through a gradual process of assimilation and accommodation as they progressed from the sensorimotor stage to the stage of formal operations.
    
    
42. Teachers can help students use cognitive skills and strategies by helping students (1) monitor their cognitive processes effectively; (2) avoid the use of simplistic, _____________ routines when better strategies are available; (3) develop an adequate knowledge base of general and specific information and of the strategies available in various subject areas; (4) develop a pattern of attributing both success and failure to the effectiveness of their own _____________; and (5) help them to _____________ effective strategies to new situations.
    
     
43. Cognitive strategy instruction is designed to help learners develop _____________ skills.
    
     
44. Cognitive instruction has been defined as any effort on the part of the teacher or the instructional materials to help students process information in _____________ ways and become independent learners.
    
     
45. The essential feature of cognitive instruction is a focus on how and why specific topics are to be mastered, with an emphasis on how the specific topic fits into an overall _____________ of related topics and skills.
    
     
46. Cognitive strategy Instruction can be "direct" to the extent that the teacher or material makes _____________ what is to be learned or "indirect" to the extent that students themselves make the _____________ between thinking skills and problem solutions.
    
     
47. A common and effective strategy for helping students develop their higher order _____________ skills is scaffolding.
    
     
48. Good ways to introduce a cognitive strategy to students include demonstrating or explaining a prompt, modeling the skill, or thinking _____________ while performing a task that applies the strategy.
    
    
49. As students become increasingly proficient at a strategy, it is important to increase student _____________ for its successful application.
    
     
50. During cognitive strategy instruction it is important to avoid simply making the task _____________. The idea is to give the learner increasing _____________ for performing an important task - not to alter or water down the ultimate task so that the child can appear to be successful.
    
     
51. Scaffolding should help the learner accomplish a goal beyond simply _____________ the activity of the skilled partner.
    
     
52. During cognitive strategy instruction it is important to give the learner opportunities for _____________ practice and generalization.
    
     
53. Notetaking is effective to the extent that it helps students become _____________ involved with the subject matter in order to organize it, to encode it, and to integrate it with their previous knowledge.

Answers to Quiz and Exercises:

Unit Quiz

1. Answer to Question 1: (b) Metacognitive skill are those that enable us to monitor and coordinate our other cognitive skills. In this case, Maribeth is monitoring her ability to learn from texts and is making adjustments based on what she learns about her thinking processes.

Return to Question 1.

Go to Question 2.

2. Answer to Question 2: (a) This is a content thinking skill. Specifically, it is an example of declarative knowledge. If she learned how to actually apply the process and delete text it would be a procedural skill. It's a close call here, because the only reason for having the declarative knowledge is in order to perform the procedure. Nevertheless, it is definitely a content skill, which is the focus of this question. {The content is "knowledge of word processing.} Although Maribeth would use basic reasoning skills {e.g., storage and retrieval and categorization} to remember this information, the information itself is not a basic reasoning skill.

Return to Question 2.

Go to Question 3.

3. Answer to Question 3: (c) She is employing a retrieval skill, which is a specific type of basic reasoning skill. The information itself is a content thinking skill {See question 2}, but what she is doing here is a basic reasoning skill.

Return to Question 3.

Go to Question 4.

4. Answer to Question 4: (d) This is an example of a metacognitive skill, because Maribeth is monitoring her cognitive strategies. Self-regulation of this type is an important metacognitive skill. {Note that if attention control, which is a learning-to-learn skill, were listed, that could also be a correct answer. Some students select cognitive restructuring as the correct answer, because Maribeth is talking to herself. However, self-talk is an example of cognitive restructuring only when it occurs for the purpose of becoming actively involved with the information &endash; that is, when it produces generative learning. That is, if Maribeth were saying something to herself something like, "Now I push d for delete to get rid of this stuff," then that would be cognitive restructuring. Actually, this is a close question, and somebody will probably leave out cognitive restructuring as an alternative the next time this set of questions is revised.

Return to Question 4.

Go to Question 5.

5. Answer to Question 5: (a) Goal setting is an important learning-to-learn skill. Statement (a) would be a better example of a learning-to-learn skill if it specified that Maribeth was setting the goal in such a way as to actively integrate her learning.

Return to Question 5.

Go to Question 6.

6. Answer to Question 6: (e) The above are all examples of content knowledge, but they are all examples of procedural &endash; not declarative &endash; knowledge.

Return to Question 6.

Go to Question 7.

7. Answer to Question 7: (d) All three of these state that Maribeth knows how to follow sets of procedures that she has learned.

Return to Question 7.

Go to Question 8.

8. Answer to Question 8: (e) None of these is an example of a metacognitive skill. They are all procedural skills.

Return to Question 8.

Go to Question 9.

9. Answer to Question 9: (e) None of these is an example of a metacognitive skill. They are all procedural skills.

Return to Question 9.

Go to Question 10.

10. Answer to Question 10: (b). Metacomprehension is a term that applies to the ability to monitor and coordinate one's skills of comprehension. That's exactly what Jake is doing.

Return to Question 10.

Matching Exercises

Set 1

1. l

2. p

3. d

4. b

5. f

6. o

7. q

8. m

9. c

10. k

11. a

12. h

13. i

14. j

15. g

16. n

17. e

Set 2

1. c

2. d

3. e

4. h

5. a

6. g

7. f

8. j

9. b

10. i

Key Ideas

1. instruction

2. attention; conscious

3. goals

4. Short-term

5. difference

6. purpose

7. restructuring

8. mediation; manageable

9. self-belief; clearly

10. monitoring; achieved

11 declarative; procedural

12. patterns

13. when

14. verbalize

15. errors

16. automaticity

17. prerequisites

18. cognition

19. long-term

20. Matching

21 group; generalize

22. information; unnecessary

23. similarities

24. relationships

25. logic

26. value

27. restructure

28. inferring

29. finding

30. linguistic; communicate

31. specific

32. awareness

33. knowledge

34. how

35. monitor; repair

36. understood; confusion

37. adjustments

38. consciously; automatic

39. direct

40. constructivism

41. formal; metacognitive

42. primitive; efforts; transfer

43. thinking

44. meaningful

45. framework

46. explicit; connection

47. thinking

48. aloud

49. responsibility

50. easier; responsibility

51. imitating

52. independent

53. actively